Introduction
A merger occurs when one company is legally absorbed into another and the surviving company takes over all of the assets and liabilities of the absorbed company. There cannot be any separate transfer of assets or liabilities to other third parties and a certificate of merger must be filed in the state where the new business will incorporate. The absorbed company shareholders are not “bought out” and therefore the merger is, in essence, treated as a stock transaction for federal tax purposes. The shareholders of both of the merged companies exchange their original stock for new stock in the surviving company. The company’s board of directors and shareholders must approve the merger.
Acquisitions can occur in two ways:
- Buy the assets of the company
- Buy the company’s shares from the stockholders
Under the acquisition scenario, the shareholders of the company being bought can, in most instances, take their money and “ride off into the sunset.” The terms of the payment can be either in cash or stock of the purchase (which is as good as cash for publicly traded companies). The acquisition is different from a merger in that the selling shareholders do not own stock in a new, combined enterprise. The buyer can select targeted assets or liabilities to take and others to discard which the seller must accomodate. For example, the buyer does not have to assume the debt of the company being bought–although in most cases they do.
In mergers and acquisitions, tax and net income considerations of both the buyer and seller are a major factor in determining how the deal is ultimately structured. The selling shareholders participating in acquisition of asset deals may have to pay significant taxes on gains unless the transaction is structured in a way that allows the taxes to be deferred. Types of tax deferrable transactions include statutory mergers, stock-for-stock swaps, and stock-for-equity swaps. If the purchase price paid for the assets exceeds its fair market value, the excess payment is treated as goodwill under current accounting rules. The goodwill is then amortized over a period of generally 5 to 7 years and the annual amortization amount is taken as a charge against the buyer’s net income. Consequently, if a buyer’s shareholders are very focused on net income growth, purchasing assets in excess of fair market value presents an obstacle. In addition, the goodwill expense is not deductible for federal tax purposes (unlike other items such as depreciation).
One way to bypass the goodwill amortization issue is to structure the transaction as a “pooling of interest.” The table below shows the difference between the purchase and pooling structure.
Minority vs. Majority Equity Position
The percentage equity ownership that a buyer takes in a target company can have material effect on its reported financial statements. The nature of the impact varies according to the following:
- less than 20% ownership
- greater than 20% ownership, but less than 50%
- greater than 50% ownership
At the less than 20% equity ownership level, the buying company is not required to consolidate any portion of the revenue or net income of the selling company to its financial statements. This can be a very important consideration if the selling company is expected to experience losses at once and in the near future as it grows its business. The buying company does not need to dilute its earnings because of its obligation to consolidate its share of the losses since its investment is a relatively small minority. As an example, NYNEX recently invested $3 million, for less than 10 percent equity position, in VDONet Corp., a maker of compression technology equipment for transmitting video over the internet. NYNEX’s goal is to have a competitive edge in multimedia services over standard phone lines.
However, there is an exception to this rule. If the buying company, as a condition of its investment, has significant veto power over key business decisions made by the selling company, then they are deemed to have operating control and would act more like a majority investor.
If the acquirer has an equity interest between 20% and 50%, they are required to consolidate their share of profits or losses from the target company regardless of whether they have veto rights over key operating plans. Most buyers who take this level of equity ownership usually structure the deal to give them a path to control at a later date. This can be the right of first refusal to buy additional equity or a guaranteed future majority share at an agreed upon price or method to calculate the price.
An equity position of greater than 50% most often means the buyer has control of the day-to-day running of the business and, therefore, will consolidate the total revenue of the target company to its financial statements as well as its portion of profits and losses. However, as discussed above, if the minority shareholder(s) are given veto rights that clearly prevent the majority shareholder from exercising full control over the operations of the business, then revenue consolidation is disallowed but the percentage of earnings is not.
Merger and acquisition transaction types are normally executed in one of the following formats:
- statutory merger
- exchange of stock for stock
- purchase of assets for stock
- purchase of stock for cash
- purchase of assets for cash
Statutory Merger
A statutory merger involves two companies merging their businesses and generally the shareholders receive payment in stock. The deal is non-taxable and can be done as either a purchase or a pooling of interest. Recently, NYNEX and Bell Atlantic, two regional telephone companies merged their businesses into one enterprise that kept the Bell Atlantic brand name after the merger. Consequently, N’s shareholders exchanged their original shares in that company for shares in the new Bell Atlantic company. The combination is expected to be treated as a tax-free transaction.
Exchange of stock for stock deals occur when the selling shareholders sell their company to the buyer and receive shares in the buyer’s company as the security for payment. The transaction is usually non-taxable and can be done as a purchase or pooling of interest. For example, Cabletron Systems, a maker of computer networking equipment, agreed to purchase Network Express, a provider of high-speed computer network switches, for $116 million in stock. Cabletron Systems will exchange 0.1388 of its common shares for each of Network Express’ 10.7 million shares outstanding.
In this type of transaction, an asset or a group of assets (such as selected plants and machinery) and not the entire company of the seller is purchased. In some cases, only the corporate shell of the seller remains which can be liquidated at a later date. The currency used to fund the purchase is stock of the buyer’s company. This transaction is also non-taxable and can be treated as a purchase or pooling of interest. In May 1996, Ronald Perelman’s New World Communications Group, Inc. sold two TV stations to NBC for $425 million. If NBC, a unit of General Electric Co., paid for the stations with stock, then that deal would be an example of a purchase of assets for stock transaction.
Purchase of Stock for Cash
This type of transaction is fairly common and occurs when the shareholders sell their stock for cash to a buyer. The buyer will then have majority or full control depending on the number of shareholders who sell. This type of deal is taxable to the shareholders of the selling company if they realize a gain from selling their shares. This type of transaction is treated as a purchase only and pooling of interest benefits does not come into play. After months of wrangling over price, the US oil giant Mobil Oil acquired the Australian oil and gas producer, Ampolex Ltd., for $1.4 billion in cash.
Purchase of Assets for Cash
This transaction is similar to a purchase of assets for stock, except that the assets are paid for with cash and not stock. This transaction is also taxable to the selling shareholders and can only be done as a purchase and not a pooling of interest.
